Education at a Glance 2021 OECD INDICATORS Education at a Glance 2021 OECD INDICATORS This work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of OECD member countries. This document, as well as any data and map included herein, are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area. The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law. Please cite this publication as: OECD (2021), Education at a Glance 2021: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b35a14e5-en. ISBN 978-92-64-36077-8 (print) ISBN 978-92-64-81892-7 (pdf) Education at a Glance ISSN 1563-051X (print) ISSN 1999-1487 (online) Photo credits: Cover © Christopher Futcher/iStock; © Marc Romanelli/Gettyimages; © michaeljung/Shutterstock; © Pressmaster/Shutterstock. Corrigenda to publications may be found on line at: www.oecd.org/about/publishing/corrigenda.htm. © OECD 2021 The use of this work, whether digital or print, is governed by the Terms and Conditions to be found at http://www.oecd.org/termsandconditions. Foreword FOREWORD | 3 Governments are increasingly looking to international comparisons of education opportunities and outcomes as they develop policies to enhance individuals’ social and economic prospects, provide incentives for greater efficiency in schooling, and help to mobilise resources to meet rising demands. The OECD Directorate for Education and Skills contributes to these efforts by developing and analysing the quantitative, internationally comparable indicators that it publishes annually in Education at a Glance. Together with OECD country policy reviews, these indicators can be used to assist governments in building more effective and equitable education systems. Education at a Glance addresses the needs of a range of users, from governments seeking to learn policy lessons to academics requiring data for further analysis to the general public wanting to monitor how their countries’ schools are progressing in producing world-class students. This publication examines the quality of learning outcomes, the policy levers and contextual factors that shape these outcomes, and the broader private and social returns that accrue to investments in education. Education at a Glance is the product of a long-standing, collaborative effort between OECD governments, the experts and institutions working within the framework of the OECD Indicators of Education Systems (INES) programme, and the OECD Secretariat. This publication was prepared by the staff of the Innovation and Measuring Progress Division of the OECD Directorate for Education and Skills, under the responsibility of Dirk Van Damme and Marie-Hélène Doumet, and in cooperation with Étienne Albiser, Andrea Borlizzi, Antonio Carvalho, Éric Charbonnier, Manon Costinot, Bruce Golding, Yanjun Guo, Corinne Heckmann, Massimo Loi, Simon Normandeau, Gara Rojas González, Daniel Sánchez Serra, Markus Schwabe, Giovanni Maria Semeraro, Choyi Whang and Hajar Sabrina Yassine. Administrative support was provided by Valérie Forges, and additional advice and analytical support were provided by Heewoon Bae, Pablo Fraser, Gabor Fulop, Julie Hepp, Noémie Le Donné and Violeta Lanza Robles. Cassandra Davis and Sophie Limoges provided valuable support in the editorial and production process. The development of the publication was steered by member countries through the INES Working Party and facilitated by the INES networks. The members of the various bodies as well as the individual experts who have contributed to this publication and to the INES programme more generally are listed at the end of this publication. While much progress has been made in recent years, member countries and the OECD continue to strive to strengthen the link between policy needs and the best available internationally comparable data. This presents various challenges and tradeoffs. First, the indicators need to respond to education issues that are high on national policy agendas, and where the international comparative perspective can offer added value to what can be accomplished through national analysis and evaluation. Second, while the indicators should be as comparable as possible, they also need to be as country-specific as is necessary to allow for historical, systemic and cultural differences between countries. Third, the indicators need to be presented in as straightforward a manner as possible, while remaining sufficiently complex to reflect multi-faceted realities. Fourth, there is a general desire to keep the indicator set as small as possible, but it needs to be large enough to be useful to policy makers across countries that face different challenges in education. The OECD will continue not only to address these challenges vigorously and develop indicators in areas where it is feasible and promising to develop data, but also to advance in areas where a considerable investment still needs to be made in conceptual work. The OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and its extension through the OECD Survey of Adult Skills, a product of the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), as well as the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS), are major efforts to this end. EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2021 © OECD 2021 Table of contents TABLE OF CONTENTS | 5 Foreword 3 Editorial 11 Introduction: The indicators and their framework 13 Reader’s guide 19 Executive summary 25 Youth in the Education Sustainable Development Goal 28 Chapter A. The output of educational institutions and the impact of learning 37 Indicator A1. To what level have adults studied? 38 Indicator A2. Transition from education to work: Where are today’s youth? 52 Indicator A3. How does educational attainment affect participation in the labour market? 64 Indicator A4. What are the earnings advantages from education? 82 Indicator A5. What are the financial incentives to invest in education? 98 Indicator A6. How are social outcomes related to education? 114 Indicator A7. To what extent do adults participate equally in education and learning? 132 Chapter B. Access to education, participation and progress 145 Indicator B1. Who participates in education? 146 Indicator B2. How do early childhood education systems differ around the world? 158 Indicator B3. Who is expected to graduate from upper secondary education? 174 Indicator B4. Who is expected to enter tertiary education? 188 Indicator B5. Who is expected to graduate from tertiary education? 200 Indicator B6. What is the profile of internationally mobile students? 212 EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2021 © OECD 2021 6 | TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter C. Financial resources invested in education 225 Introduction 226 Indicator C1. How much is spent per student on educational institutions? 230 Indicator C2. What proportion of national wealth is spent on educational institutions? 244 Indicator C3. How much public and private investment in educational institutions is there? 256 Indicator C4. What is the total public spending on education? 268 Indicator C5. How much do tertiary students pay and what public support do they receive? 282 Indicator C6. On what resources and services is education funding spent? 300 Indicator C7. Which factors influence teachers’ salary cost? 314 Chapter D. Teachers, the learning environment and the organisation of schools 329 Indicator D1. How much time do students spend in the classroom? 330 Indicator D2. What is the student-teacher ratio and how big are classes? 346 Indicator D3. How much are teachers and school heads paid? 358 Indicator D4. How much time do teachers and school heads spend teaching and working? 380 Indicator D5. Who are the teachers? 396 Indicator D6. How are public funds allocated to schools? 408 Indicator D7. What proportion of teachers leave the teaching profession? 424 Annex 1. Characteristics of education systems 439 Annex 2. Reference statistics 445 Annex 3. Sources, methods and technical notes 458 Contributors to this publication 459 Education Indicators in Focus 467 TABLES Table A1.1. Educational attainment of 25-64 year-olds (2020) 48 Table A1.2. Trends in educational attainment of 25-34 year-olds, by gender (2010 and 2020) 49 Table A1.3. Educational attainment of native- and foreign-born 25-64 year-olds, by age at arrival in the country (2020) 50 Table A2.1. Percentage of 18-24 year-olds in education/not in education, by work status (2020) 61 Table A2.2. Trends in the percentage of young adults in education/not in education, by gender, age group and work status (2019 and 2020, annual data) 62 Table A2.3. Percentage of native-born and foreign-born 15-29 year-old NEETs, by age at arrival in the country (2020) 63 Table A3.1. Employment rates of 25-64 year-olds, by educational attainment (2020) 77 Table A3.2. Trends in employment rates, by educational attainment and age group (2019 and 2020) 78 Table A3.3. Trends in unemployment and inactivity rates of 25-34 year-olds (2019 and 2020) 79 Table A3.4. Employment rates of native- and foreign-born 25-64 year-olds, by age at arrival in the country and educational attainment (2020) 80 EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2021 © OECD 2021 TABLE OF CONTENTS | 7 Table A4.1. Relative earnings of workers, by educational attainment (2019) 93 Table A4.2. Level of earnings relative to median earnings, by educational attainment (2019) 94 Table A4.3. Women’s earnings as a percentage of men’s earnings, by educational attainment and age group (2019) 95 Table A4.4. Foreign-born workers’ earnings as a percentage of native-born workers’ earnings, by educational attainment (2019) 96 Table A5.1. Private costs and benefits for a man attaining tertiary education (2018) 109 Table A5.2. Private costs and benefits for a woman attaining tertiary education (2018) 110 Table A5.3. Public costs and benefits for a man attaining tertiary education (2018) 111 Table A5.4. Public costs and benefits for a woman attaining tertiary education (2018) 112 Table A6.1. Life expectancy at age 30, by educational attainment and gender (2017) 126 Table A6.2. Percentage of the population reporting being in good or very good health, by educational attainment and gender (2010, 2015 and 2019) 127 Table A6.3. Proportion of obese adults, by educational attainment and gender (2017) 128 Table A6.4. Percentage of adults who report consuming at least five portions of fruits and vegetables per day, by educational attainment and gender (2014) 129 Table A6.5. Percentage of adults who report performing at least 180 minutes of physical activity per week, by educational attainment and gender (2017) 130 Table A7.1. Trends in participation in formal and/or non-formal education and training, by gender (2007, 2011 and 2016) 141 Table A7.2. Participation in formal and/or non-formal education and training, by labour market status and gender (2016) 142 Table A7.3. Participation in formal and/or non-formal education, by gender and whether there are young children in the household (2016) 143 Table A7.4. Participants in formal and/or non-formal education and training, by gender (second quarter of 2020 compared to second quarter of 2019) 144 Table B1.1. Enrolment rates by age group (2005, 2013 and 2019) 155 Table B1.2. Enrolment rates of 15-19, 20-24 and 25-29 year-olds by gender and level of education (2019) 156 Table B1.3. Enrolment rates from age 15 to 20 by level of education (2013 and 2019) 157 Table B2.1. Trends in enrolment rates in early childhood education and care and primary education, by age group (2005, 2015 and 2019) 170 Table B2.2. Percentage of children enrolled in private institutions, ratio of children to teaching staff, by ISCED 0 levels (2019) and index of change in the ratio of children to teaching staff (2015=100) 171 Table B2.3. Financing of early childhood education and care (ISCED 0) and change in expenditure (2018) 172 Table B3.1. Profile of upper secondary graduates from vocational programmes (2019) 185 Table B3.2. Profile of post-secondary non-tertiary graduates from vocational programmes (2019) 186 Table B3.3. Trends in upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary first-time graduation rates (2005, 2013 and 2019) 187 Table B4.1. Profile of first-time entrants and entry rate to tertiary education (2019) 197 Table B4.2. Profile of new entrants and entry rate to bachelor's, master's and doctoral levels (2019) 198 Table B4.3. Distribution of new entrants into tertiary education by field of study (2019) 199 Table B5.1. Graduation rate and profile of first-time tertiary graduates (2019) 208 Table B5.2. Distribution of tertiary graduates by field of study and gender (2019) 209 Table B5.3. Graduation rate and profile of first-time tertiary graduates at bachelor's, master's and doctoral levels (2019) 210 Table B6.1. International and foreign student mobility in tertiary education (2010, 2014 and 2019) 222 Table B6.2. Distribution of tertiary students enrolled by broad fields of study, by mobility status (2019) 223 Table C1.1. Total expenditure on educational institutions per full-time equivalent student (2018) 241 Table C1.2. Public and total expenditure on educational institutions per full-time equivalent student, by type of institution (2018) 242 Table C1.3. Average annual growth in total expenditure on educational institutions per full-time equivalent student (2012 to 2018) 243 Table C2.1. Total expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP (2018) 252 Table C2.2. Index of change in public expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP (2012 and 2018) 253 Table C2.3. Index of change in total expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP (2012 and 2018) 254 Table C3.1. Relative share of public, private and international expenditure on educational institutions, by final source of funds (2018) 264 EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2021 © OECD 2021 8 | TABLE OF CONTENTS Table C3.2. Relative share of public, private and international expenditure on educational institutions, by source of funds and public-to-private transfers (2018) 265 Table C3.3. Trends in the share of public, private and international expenditure on educational institutions (2012 and 2018) 266 Table C4.1. Total public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure (2018) 278 Table C4.2. Distribution of sources of total public funds devoted to education, by level of government (2018) 279 Table C4.3. Index of change in total public expenditure on education as a percentage of total government expenditure (2012 and 2018) 280 Table C5.1. Annual average (or most common) tuition fees charged by tertiary institutions to national and foreign students (2019/20) 293 Table C5.2. Variation of tuition fees over time and public financial support to national students enrolled in tertiary programmes (2009/10 and 2019/20) 295 Table C5.3. Tuition fee policy reforms (2016/19) 296 Table C5.4. Actions taken to cope with the COVID-19 crisis (2020) 297 Table C6.1. Share of current and capital expenditure, by level of education (2018) 310 Table C6.2. Share of current expenditure, by resource category (2018) 311 Table C6.3. Share of current expenditure, by resource category and type of institution (2018) 312 Table C7.1. Salary cost of teachers per student, by level of education (2019) 325 Table C7.2. Contribution of various factors to salary cost of teachers per student in primary education (2019) 326 Table C7.3. Contribution of various factors to salary cost of teachers per student in lower secondary education (2019) 327 Table D1.1. Instruction time in compulsory general education¹ (2021) 342 Table D1.2. Organisation of compulsory general education¹ (2021) 343 Table D1.3. Instruction time per subject in primary education (2021) 344 Table D1.4. Instruction time per subject in general lower secondary education (2021) 345 Table D2.1. Average class size, by type of institution and level of education (2013 and 2019) 354 Table D2.2. Ratio of students to teaching staff in educational institutions, by level of education (2019) 355 Table D2.3. Ratio of students to teaching staff, by type of institution (2019) 356 Table D3.1. Teachers' statutory salaries, based on the most prevalent qualifications at different points in teachers' careers (2020) 375 Table D3.2. Teachers' and school heads' actual salaries relative to earnings of tertiary-educated workers (2020) 376 Table D3.3. Teachers' and school heads' average actual salaries (2020) 377 Table D3.4. School heads' minimum and maximum statutory salaries, based on minimum qualifications (2020) 378 Table D4.1. Organisation of teachers' teaching time (2020) 393 Table D4.2. Organisation of teachers' working time (2020) 394 Table D4.3. Organisation of school heads' working time (2020) 395 Table D5.1. Gender distribution of teachers (2019) 404 Table D5.2. Gender distribution of teachers by age group (2019) and percentage of female teachers for all ages (2005 and 2019) 405 Table D5.3. Age distribution of teachers (2019) 406 Table D6.1. Basis used to allocate funding to public primary educational institutions (2019) 420 Table D6.2. Use of funding formulas to allocate public funding to public primary educational institutions (2019) 421 Table D6.3. Equity criteria used in allocating central or state government funding for primary and lower secondary educational institutions (2019) 422 Table D7.1. Teacher attrition rates in pre-primary to upper secondary education, by gender and age group (2016) 436 Table D7.2. Teacher attrition rates by level of education (2016) 437 EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2021 © OECD 2021 Follow OECD Publications on: http://twitter.com/OECD_Pubs http://www.facebook.com/OECDPublications http://www.linkedin.com/groups/OECD-Publications-4645871 http://www.youtube.com/oecdilibrary OECD Alerts http://www.oecd.org/oecddirect/ This book has... StatLinks2 A service that delivers Excel® files from the printed page! Look for the StatLinks2at the bottom of the tables or graphs in this book. To download the matching Excel® spreadsheet, just type the link into your Internet browser, starting with the http://dx.doi.org prefix, or click on the link from the e-book edition. TABLE OF CONTENTS | 9 EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2021 © OECD 2021 Editorial EDITORIAL | 11 The COVID-19 pandemic has hit our health, economic, and social sectors hard. It has also exposed and highlighted some systemic weaknesses hampering genuine social mobility. Equality of opportunity is a key ingredient for a strong and cohesive democratic society. Unlike policies that address the consequences, education can tackle the sources of inequality of opportunity, by creating a more level playing field for people of all ages to acquire the skills that power better jobs and better lives. Too many from disadvantaged backgrounds remain less likely to participate in education, perform well, find suitable employment, or pursue lifelong learning. As a result, they are also less likely to develop the skills needed to succeed in our changing economy. On average across OECD countries, a child from a disadvantaged family is expected to take five generations to reach the average national income. Accordingly, the theme of this edition of Education at a Glance is equality of opportunity for access, participation, and progression in education. It focuses on participation in education, learning outcomes and teacher training for diversity in the classroom. Factors such as gender, socio-economic status, country of origin or geography, are also shown to influence performance and trajectories. And it includes a spotlight on COVID-19, by exploring measures implemented around the world to ensure continuity and equitable learning during school disruptions. Differences in educational progress and outcomes While the short and long-term effects of COVID-19 on learning are still uncertain, the pandemic risks exacerbating these existing learning gaps. We know that those from disadvantaged backgrounds face greater challenges adapting to the changes imposed by the pandemic. School closures have tended to last longer in countries with lower learning outcomes. Moreover, disadvantaged children are less likely to have access to adequate tools for remote learning, a quiet place to study at home, or the support of their parents or guardians. Socio-economic status also influences educational pathways. Those students without at least one tertiary-educated parent are more likely to enrol in upper secondary vocational programmes than in general ones and less likely to complete the level. Those without upper secondary education face disadvantages in the labour market. In 2020, the unemployment rate of young adults that had not completed upper secondary education is almost twice as high as for those with higher qualifications. In contrast, those from advantaged backgrounds are overrepresented in general upper secondary programmes and among entrants to bachelor programmes, which risks amplifying perceptions that certain educational tracks hold more societal value than others. Children from an immigrant background tend to be at a disadvantage compared to their native-born peers when it comes to access to and participation in education, even after accounting for social background. Labour market outcomes vary greatly for foreign-born adults with different levels of education, reflecting the supply and demand for different skills, the difficulties tertiary-educated foreign-born adults face in gaining recognition for their education and experience earned abroad, and lower wage expectations of foreign workers in some countries. Gender disparities also persist and influence educational trajectories and opportunities in the labour market. Boys are more likely than girls to repeat a grade and underperform in reading, and less likely to complete upper secondary education. When it comes to selecting an educational trajectory, boys are usually overrepresented in vocational paths and less likely to enter and graduate from tertiary education. Women outnumber men in participation rates to formal adult learning. Yet they remain less likely to be employed and earn less than men across all levels of educational attainment and OECD countries, even among those having graduated from the same field of study. EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2021 © OECD 2021 12 | EDITORIAL Rethinking equity in education in today’s digital world Despite these findings, this edition of Education at a Glance also shows that those challenges can be successfully addressed. Comparative data, policy analysis and best practice provide important insights. The comparisons show that improved social mobility and better equality of opportunity is indeed possible, with lessons from the most equitable education systems highlighting the importance of starting early, so that children, particularly those from disadvantaged backgrounds, acquire solid foundations, including cognitive, social and emotional skills, and a sustained habit of learning which will carry them through life. Towards this, investment in teachers is needed to develop capacity in understanding individual students’ needs and tailor their learning strategies accordingly. However, while 94% of teachers across the OECD countries participating in the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) reported having participated in continuous professional development activities over the past 12 months, only around 20% reported participating in training about teaching in a multicultural or multilingual settings, with significant cross-country variation. Technological innovation has implications for education changing the demand for knowledge and skills, but it is also transforming the education sector itself. During the pandemic, we have seen some of the downsides, from student screen fatigue and adaptation stress, to the risk of those without access to adequate tools for remote learning falling behind. But we have also seen how technology can make learning more granular, more adaptive and more interactive for students. It can help teachers better understand how different students learn differently and it can assist education systems better match resources to needs. Here, the knowledge and confidence that teachers have in utilising technology and integrating it into education is essential. Finally, we know that preparing students for lifelong learning to up-skill and re-skill as adults is key to ensuring they are resilient to mega trends and external shocks. Yet, on average across OECD countries, participation in adult learning by lowskilled individuals is a staggering 40 percentage points below that of high-skilled adults. Older adults are 25 percent less likely to train than 25-34 year-olds. So in addition to starting early, educators need to work more closely with other government sectors and business to help promote flexible pathways in and out of education that evolve alongside labour market demands. As we navigate through the immediate and longer-term effects of the pandemic, the continued globalisation and digitalisation of our economies, the OECD will continue the essential work of rigorous evidence-based analysis and policy innovation to help address education and skills needs. We all benefit when we all grow and prosper. Mathias Cormann Secretary-General, OECD EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2021 © OECD 2021 INTRODUCTION: THE INDICATORS AND THEIR FRAMEWORK | 13 Introduction: The indicators and their framework The organising framework Education at a Glance 2021: OECD Indicators offers a rich, comparable and up-to-date array of indicators that reflect a consensus among professionals on how to measure the current state of education internationally. The indicators provide information on the human and financial resources invested in education, how education and learning systems operate and evolve, and the returns to investments in education. They are organised thematically, each accompanied by information on the policy context and interpretation of the data. The indicators are organised within a framework that distinguishes between the actors in education systems, groups them according to the types of issues they address and examines contextual factors that influence policy (Figure A). In addition to these dimensions, the time perspective makes it possible to visualise dynamic aspects of the development of education systems. Figure A. Organising framework of indicators in Education at a Glance Actors in education systems The OECD Indicators of Education Systems (INES) programme seeks to gauge the performance of national education systems as a whole, rather than to compare individual institutional or other subnational entities. However, there is increasing recognition that many important features of the development, functioning and impact of education systems can only be EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2021 © OECD 2021 14 | INTRODUCTION: THE INDICATORS AND THEIR FRAMEWORK assessed through an understanding of learning outcomes and their relationships to inputs and processes at the level of individuals and institutions. To account for this, the first dimension of the organising framework distinguishes the three levels of actors in education systems: • Education systems as a whole. • Providers of educational services (institutions, schools), as well as the instructional setting within those institutions (classrooms, teachers). • Individual participants in education and learning, the students. These can be either children or young adults undergoing initial schooling and training, or adults pursuing lifelong learning programmes. Indicator groups The second dimension of the organising framework further groups the indicators into three categories: • Indicators on the output, outcomes and impact of education systems: Output indicators analyse the characteristics of those exiting the system, such as their educational attainment. Outcome indicators examine the direct effects of the output of education systems, such as the employment and earning benefits of pursuing higher education. Impact indicators analyse the long-term indirect effects of the outcomes, such as the knowledge and skills acquired, contributions to economic growth and societal well-being, and social cohesion and equity. • Indicators on the participation and progression within education entities: These indicators assess the likelihood of students accessing, enrolling in and completing different levels of education, as well as the various pathways followed between types of programmes and across education levels. • Indicators on the input into education systems or the learning environment: These indicators provide information on the policy levers that shape the participation, progression, outputs and outcomes at each level. Such policy levers relate to the resources invested in education, including financial, human (such as teachers and other school staff) or physical resources (such as buildings and infrastructure). They also relate to policy choices regarding the instructional setting of classrooms, pedagogical content and delivery of the curriculum. Finally, they analyse the organisation of schools and education systems, including governance, autonomy and specific policies to regulate the participation of students in certain programmes. Contextual factors that influence policy Policy levers typically have antecedents: external factors that define or constrain policy but are not directly connected to the policy topic at hand. Demographic, socio-economic and political factors are all important national characteristics to take into account when interpreting indicators. The 2008 financial crisis, for example, had a significant impact on public funds available to education. The characteristics of the students themselves, such as their gender, age, socio-economic status or cultural background, are also important contextual factors that influence the outcomes of education policy. Indicator analysis using the framework This versatile framework can be used to understand the operation and functioning of any educational entity, from an education system as a whole to a specific level of education or programme, or even a smaller entity, such as a classroom. This versatility is important because many features of education systems have varying impacts at different levels of the system. For example, at the level of students within a classroom, the relationship between student achievement and class size may be negative, if students in small classes benefit from improved interactions with teachers. At the class or school level, however, weaker or disadvantaged students are often intentionally grouped and placed in smaller classes so that they receive more individual attention. At the school level, therefore, the observed relationship between class size and student achievement is often positive, suggesting that students in larger classes perform better than students in smaller classes. At higher levels of aggregation, the relationship between student achievement and class size is further confounded by the socioeconomic intake of individual schools or by factors relating to the learning culture in different countries. Therefore, to interpret the indicators, it is important to fully understand the relationships between them. EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2021 © OECD 2021 INTRODUCTION: THE INDICATORS AND THEIR FRAMEWORK | 15 Analysis of each element of the framework and the interplay between them contribute to understanding a variety of policy perspectives: • quality of education outcomes and education opportunities • equality of education outcomes and equity in education opportunities • adequacy, effectiveness and efficiency of resources invested in education • relevance of education policy measures to improve education outcomes. The structure of chapters and indicators in Education at a Glance The indicators published in Education at a Glance 2021 have been developed within this framework. The chapters are structured through the lens of the education system as a whole, although the indicators themselves are disaggregated and analysed across different levels of education and education settings, and may therefore cover more than one element of the framework. Chapter A, The output of educational institutions and the impact of learning, contains indicators on the output, outcomes and impact of education in the form of the overall attainment of the population, as well as the learning, economic and social outcomes (Figure A). Through this analysis, the indicators in this chapter provide context, for example, to shape policies on lifelong learning. They also provide insights into the policy levers needed to address areas where outcomes and impact may not be aligned with national strategic objectives. Chapter B, Access to education, participation and progression, considers the full education system from early childhood to tertiary education and provides indicators on the enrolment, progression and completion of students at each level and programme (Figure A). These indicators can be considered a mixture of output and outcome, to the extent that the output of each education level serves as input to the next and that progression is the result of policies and practices at classroom, institution and system levels. But they can also provide context to identify areas where policy intervention is necessary to address issues of inequity, for example, or to encourage international mobility. Chapters C and D relate to the inputs into educational systems (Figure A): • Chapter C, Financial resources invested in education, provides indicators on expenditure in education and educational institutions, how that expenditure is shared between public and private sources, the tuition fees charged by institutions, and the financial mechanisms to support students. These indicators are mainly policy levers, but they also help to explain specific learning outcomes. For example, expenditure on educational institutions per student is a key policy measure that most directly affects individual learners, but it also acts as a constraint on the learning environment in schools and learning conditions in the classroom. • Chapter D, Teachers, the learning environment and organisation of schools, provides indicators on instruction time, teachers’ and school heads’ working time, and teachers’ and school heads’ salaries. These indicators not only represent policy levers that can be manipulated, but also provide contexts for the quality of instruction and for the outcomes of individual learners. This chapter also presents data on the profile of teachers. In addition to the regular indicators and core statistics published, Education at a Glance also contains analytical work in textboxes. This work usually provides research elements that contribute to the understanding of the indicator, or additional analysis of a smaller number of countries that complement the findings presented. Sustainable Development Goal 4 In September 2015, world leaders gathered to set ambitious goals for the future of the global community. Goal 4 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) seeks to ensure “inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”. Each target of the SDG 4 framework has at least one global indicator and a number of related thematic indicators designed to complement the analysis and the measurement of the target. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) oversees the education SDG agenda in the context of the United Nations-led SDG framework. As the custodian agency for most of the SDG 4 indicators, the UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS) is co-ordinating global efforts to develop the indicator framework to monitor progress towards SDG 4 targets. In addition to collecting data, the UIS works with partners to develop new indicators, statistical approaches and monitoring tools to better assess progress across the education-related SDG targets. EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2021 © OECD 2021 16 | INTRODUCTION: THE INDICATORS AND THEIR FRAMEWORK In this context, the OECD’s education programmes have a key role to play in the achievement of – and measuring progress towards – SDG 4 and its targets. There is a high level of complementarity between the SDG 4 agenda and the OECD’s education policy tools, instruments, evidence and dialogue platforms. The OECD is working with the UIS, the SDG 4 Steering Committee and the technical working groups that have been put in place to help build a comprehensive data system for global reporting, agree on the data sources and formulae used for reporting on the SDG 4 global indicators, and on selected thematic indicators for OECD and partner countries. As part of this global effort to advance the dialogue and progress of the SDG monitoring, Education at a Glance continues to devote an indicator to this universal education agenda. The analysis aims to provide an assessment of where OECD and partner countries stand on their way to meeting the SDG targets. Depending on the focus of each edition, the selected global and thematic SDG indicators presented may differ from year to year. Thus, the SDG chapter draws on the general framework of Education at a Glance. Equity in Education at a Glance 2021 As the selected theme for this year’s publication, equity is at the forefront of Education at a Glance 2021. Equity in education means that access, participation and progression to obtain a quality education are available to all and that personal or social circumstances – such as gender, socio-economical or immigrant background – are not obstacles to achieving educational potential. Therefore, a large number of indicators in this year’s edition analyse participation and progression through education, as well as the outcomes of education across a number of equity dimensions: gender, immigrant background or country of origin, and subnational regions. The socio-economic dimension is assessed through an analysis of education indicators by type of educational institution, whether public or private, as well as through the educational finance indicators. A new indicator on the criteria considered to allocate public funds to schools complements this analysis. The indicator sheds light on how resource allocation mechanisms can support efforts towards greater equity in schools, considering differences in size (the number of students, teaching and non-teaching staff, and facilities provided), location (rural, remote or urban), programmes offered (e.g. special educational needs programmes, different vocational fields, a focus on sports or the arts) and characteristics of the student population (for example, specific elements of disadvantage). A second new indicator examines teacher attrition rates among male and female teachers and complements the analysis on gender equity among the teaching profession. In line with this general focus of the publication, the SDG indicator in Education at a Glance 2021 focuses on the status of Target 4.5 that aims to “eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations” by 2030. Maintaining equity has been particularly challenging in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Disadvantaged students are most likely to struggle with distance learning, and are more at risk of disengaging with education during sustained periods of school closures. Similarly, those with lower educational attainment face higher uncertainty and instability in the job market. A supplemental COVID-19 spotlight released jointly with this publication complements the thematic focus on equity. It explores in greater depth the educational response during the pandemic, analysing the measures implemented across the world to ensure educational continuity and equitable learning during school disruptions (OECD, 2021[1]). Table A summarises the indicators and chapters that contribute to the analysis of equity in this year’s Education at a Glance. Table A. Indicators including an analysis of equity in Education at a Glance 2021, by equity dimension Chapter Indicator number Indicator Gender Equity dimensions Socio- Country of economic origin status Subnational Chapter A: A1 To what level have adults studied? X The output of A2 Transition from education to work: Where are today’s youth? X educational institutions and the impact of learning A3 How does educational attainment affect participation in the labour market? X A4 What are the earnings advantages from education? X X X X X X X X A5 What are the financial incentives to invest in education? X A6 How are social outcomes related to education? X EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2021 © OECD 2021 INTRODUCTION: THE INDICATORS AND THEIR FRAMEWORK | 17 Chapter Indicator number Indicator A7 To what extent do adults participate equally in education and learning? Chapter B: Access to education, participation and progression B1 Who participates in education? B2 How do early childhood education systems differ around the world? B3 Who is expected to graduate from upper secondary education? B4 Who is expected to enter tertiary education? B5 Who is expected to graduate from tertiary education? B6 What is the profile of internationally mobile students? Chapter C: Financial resources invested in education C1 How much is spent per student on educational institutions? C2 What proportion of national wealth is spent on educational institutions? C3 How much public and private investment in educational institutions is there? C4 What is the total public spending on education? C5 How much do tertiary students pay and what public support do they receive? C6 On what resources and services is education funding spent? C7 Which factors influence the salary cost of teachers per student? Chapter D: Teachers, the learning environment and the organisation of schools D1 How does time spent by students in the classroom vary over the years? D2 What is the student-teacher ratio and how big are classes? D3 How much are teachers and school heads paid? D4 How much time do teachers and school heads spend teaching and working? D5 Who are the teachers? D6 How are public funds allocated to schools? D7 What proportion of teachers leave the teaching profession? Gender X Equity dimensions Socio- Country of economic origin status Subnational X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Reference OECD (2021), The state of global education – 18 months into the pandemic, OECD Publishing, Paris, [1] https://doi.org/10.1787/1a23bb23-en. EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2021 © OECD 2021 Reader’s guide READER’S GUIDE | 19 Coverage of the statistics Although a lack of data still limits the scope of the indicators in many countries, the coverage extends, in principle, to the entire national education system (within the national territory), regardless of who owns or sponsors the institutions concerned and regardless of how education is delivered. With one exception (described below), all types of students and all age groups are included: children (including students with special needs), adults, nationals, foreigners and students in open-distance learning, in special education programmes or in education programmes organised by ministries other than the ministry of education, provided that the main aim of the programme is to broaden or deepen an individual’s knowledge. Vocational and technical training in the workplace is not included in the basic education expenditure and enrolment data, with the exception of combined school- and work-based programmes that are explicitly deemed to be part of the education system. Educational activities classified as “adult” or “non-regular” are covered, provided that the activities involve the same or similar content as “regular” education studies, or that the programmes of which they are a part lead to qualifications similar to those awarded in regular education programmes. Courses for adults that are primarily for general interest, personal enrichment, leisure or recreation are excluded. More information on the coverage of the indicators presented in Education at a Glance can be found in the OECD Handbook for Internationally Comparable Statistics on Education 2018 (OECD, 2018[2]). Comparability over time The indicators in Education at a Glance are the result of a continuous process of methodological improvement aimed at improving the robustness and international comparability of the indicators. As a result, when analysing indicators over time, it is strongly advised to do so within the most recent edition only, rather than comparing data across different editions. All comparisons over time presented in this report and on the Education at a Glance Database (http://stats.oecd.org) are based on annual revisions of historical data and the methodological improvements which have been implemented in this edition. Country coverage This publication features data on education from all OECD countries; two partner countries that participate in the INES programme, namely Brazil and the Russian Federation; and other partner G20 and OECD accession countries that are not INES members (Argentina, the People’s Republic of China, India, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia and South Africa). Data sources for the non-INES participating countries come from the regular INES data collections or from other international or national sources. In some instances, and where relevant, a country may be represented through its subnational entities or specific regions. The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law. Note on subnational regions When interpreting the results on subnational entities, readers should take into account their population as well as their geographical size. For example, in Canada, the population of Nunavut was 37 996 in 2017 and the territory covers 1.9 million EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2021 © OECD 2021 20 | READER’S GUIDE square kilometres, while the population of the province of Ontario is 14.2 million and the territory covers 909 000 square kilometres (OECD, 2021[3]). Also, regional disparities tend to be higher when more subnational entities are used in the analysis, especially in big countries like Canada, the Russian Federation or the United States. For consistency, national and subnational entities are referred to as “countries” and “economies”, respectively, throughout the publication. Territorial and subnational entities are referred to throughout the publication by their subnational name and country, e.g. England (United Kingdom). For consistency with other indicators from Education at a Glance, the subnational entity “Flanders (Belgium)” used in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) and TALIS, will be referred to by the name “Flemish Community of Belgium” throughout the publication. The Flemish Community of Belgium and the French Community of Belgium are abbreviated in the tables and figures as “Flemish Comm. (Belgium)” and “French Comm. (Belgium)”. Calculation of international means The main purpose of Education at a Glance is to provide an authoritative compilation of key international comparisons of education statistics. While overall values are given for countries in these comparisons, readers should not assume that countries themselves are homogeneous. The country averages include significant variations among subnational jurisdictions, much as the OECD average encompasses a variety of national experiences. For many indicators, an OECD average is presented; for some, an OECD total is shown. The OECD average is calculated as the unweighted mean of the data values of all OECD countries for which data are available or can be estimated. The OECD average therefore refers to an average of data values at the level of the national systems and can be used to answer the question of how an indicator value for a given country compares with the value for a typical or average country. It does not take into account the absolute size of the education system in each country. Data from TALIS present an OECD-31 average. This is the arithmetic average based on ISCED 2 teacher data across the 31 OECD countries and economies participating in TALIS with adjudicated data. The OECD total is calculated as the weighted mean of the data values of all OECD countries for which data are available or can be estimated. It reflects the value for a given indicator when OECD countries are considered as a whole. This approach is taken for the purpose of comparing, for example, expenditure charts for individual countries with those of all of the OECD countries for which valid data are available, considered as a single entity. For tables using trend series, the OECD average is calculated for countries providing data for all reference years used. This allows the OECD average to be compared over time with no distortion due to the exclusion of some countries in the different years. For many indicators, an EU22 average is also presented. It is calculated as the unweighted mean of the data values of the 22 countries that are members of both the European Union and the OECD for which data are available or can be estimated. The 22 countries are Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain and Sweden. This publication presents time series which extend beyond the date of the United Kingdom’s withdrawal from the European Union on 1 February 2020. In order to maintain consistency over time, the “European Union” aggregate compiled and presented here by the OECD Secretariat excludes the United Kingdom for the entire time series. The EU22 total is calculated as the weighted mean of the data values of all OECD-EU countries for which data are available or can be estimated. It reflects the value for a given indicator when the OECD-EU area is considered as a single entity. For some indicators, a G20 average is presented. The G20 average is calculated as the unweighted mean of the data values of all G20 countries for which data are available or can be estimated (Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Korea, Mexico, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States; the European Union is the 20th member of the G20 but is not included in the calculation). The G20 average is not computed if data for both China and India are not available. OECD, EU22 and G20 averages and totals can be significantly affected by missing data. In the case of some countries, data may not be available for specific indicators, or specific categories may not apply. Therefore, readers should keep in mind that the term “OECD/EU22/G20 average” refers to the OECD, EU22 or G20 countries included in the respective comparisons. OECD, EU22 and G20 averages are not calculated if more than 40% of countries have missing information or have information EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2021 © OECD 2021 READER’S GUIDE | 21 included in other columns. In this case, a regular average is presented, which corresponds to the arithmetic mean of the estimates included in the table or figure. Classification of levels of education The classification of levels of education is based on the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED), an instrument for compiling statistics on education internationally. ISCED 2011 was formally adopted in November 2011 and is the basis of the levels presented in this publication. Table B lists the ISCED 2011 levels used in Education at a Glance 2021 (OECD/Eurostat/UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2015[4]). Table B. Education levels under the ISCED 2011 classification Terms used in this publication Early childhood education Refers to early childhood programmes that have an intentional education component and aim to develop cognitive, physical and socio-emotional skills necessary for participation in school and society. Programmes at this level are often differentiated by age. Primary education Designed to provide a sound basic education in reading, writing and mathematics and a basic understanding of some other subjects. Entry age: between 5 and 7. Typical duration: six years. Lower secondary education Completes provision of basic education, usually in a more subject-oriented way with more specialist teachers. Programmes may differ by orientation, general or vocational, though this is less common than at upper secondary level. Entry follows completion of primary education and typical duration is three years. In some countries, the end of this level marks the end of compulsory education. Upper secondary education Stronger specialisation than at lower secondary level. Programmes offered are differentiated by orientation: general or vocational. Typical duration is three years. Post-secondary non-tertiary education Serves to broaden rather than deepen the knowledge, skills and competencies gained in upper secondary level. Programmes may be designed to increase options for participants in the labour market, for further studies at tertiary level or both. Programmes at this level are usually vocationally oriented. Short-cycle tertiary education Often designed to provide participants with professional knowledge, skills and competencies. Typically, they are practically based, occupation-specific and prepare students to enter the labour market directly. They may also provide a pathway to other tertiary education programmes (ISCED levels 6 or 7). The minimum duration is two years. Bachelor’s or equivalent level Designed to provide participants with intermediate academic and/or professional knowledge, skills and competencies, leading to a first degree or equivalent qualification. Typical duration: three to four years full-time study. This level is referred to as “bachelor’s” in the publication. Master’s or equivalent level Stronger specialisation and more complex content than bachelor’s level. Designed to provide participants with advanced academic and/or professional knowledge. May have a substantial research component. Programmes of at least five years’ duration preparing for a long-first degree/qualification are included at this level if they are equivalent to a master’s level programme in terms of their complexity and content. This level is referred to as “master’s” in the publication. Doctoral or equivalent level Designed to lead to an advanced research qualification. Programmes at this level are devoted to advanced study and original research, and exist in both academic and professional fields. This level is referred as “doctoral” in the publication. ISCED classification ISCED 0 (sub-categories: 01 for early childhood educational development and 02 for pre-primary education) ISCED 1 ISCED 2 ISCED 3 ISCED 4 ISCED 5 ISCED 6 ISCED 7 ISCED 8 In some indicators, intermediate programmes are also used. These correspond to recognised qualifications from ISCED 2011 level programmes which are not considered as sufficient for ISCED 2011 completion and are classified at a lower ISCED 2011 level. EDUCATION AT A GLANCE 2021 © OECD 2021 22 | READER’S GUIDE Fields of education and training Within ISCED, programmes and related qualifications can be classified by field of education and training as well as by level. Following the adoption of ISCED 2011, a separate review and global consultation process took place on the ISCED fields of education. The ISCED fields were revised, and the UNESCO General Conference adopted the ISCED 2013 Fields of Education and Training classification (ISCED-F 2013) (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2014[5]) in November 2013 at its 37th session. The broad ISCED-F fields considered in this publication are: education; arts and humanities; social sciences, journalism and information; business, administration and law; natural sciences, mathematics and statistics; information and communication technologies; engineering, manufacturing and construction; and health and welfare. Throughout this publication, the term “field of study” is used to refer to the different fields of this classification. The term STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) refers to the aggregation of the broad fields of natural sciences; mathematics and statistics; information and communication technologies; and engineering, manufacturing and construction. Standard error (S.E.) Some of the statistical estimates presented in this report are based on samples of adults, rather than values that could be calculated if every person in the target population in every country had answered every question. Therefore, each estimate has a degree of uncertainty associated with sampling and measurement error, which can be expressed as a standard error. The use of confidence intervals is a way to make inferences about the population means and proportions in a manner that reflects the uncertainty associated with the sample estimates. In this report, confidence intervals are stated at a 95% level. In other words, the result for the corresponding population would lie within the confidence interval in 95 out of 100 replications of the measurement on different samples drawn from the same population. In tables showing standard errors, the column with the heading “%” indicates the average percentage, and the column with the heading “S.E.” indicates the standard error. Given the survey method, there is a sampling uncertainty in the percentages (%) of twice the standard error (S.E.). For example, for the values % = 10 and S.E. = 2.6, 10% has an uncertainty zone of twice (1.96) the standard error of 2.6, assuming an error risk of 5%. Thus, the true percentage would probably (error risk of 5%) be somewhere between 5% and 15% (“confidence interval”). The confidence interval is calculated as: % +/−1.96 ∗
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